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Economics Revision Kit – Past exam questions and answers for kasneb CPA, CIFA and CCP courses
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TOPIC 1
INTRODUCTION TO MANAGEMENT
QUESTION 1
April 2022 Question Four A
Examine three skills required by managers at different levels of management. (6 marks)
ANSWER
Skills required by managers at different levels of management
- Conceptual skills: Conceptual skills refer to the ability think in abstract and to visualize the organization in a holistic manner. These skills enable a manager to see the relationship between forces in the environment that other people cannot see. It is the ability to think creatively and understand complicated or abstract ideas. These skills are critically important to the top-level management since the top management is responsible for positioning the entity as a whole strategically in its external environment. They also responsible for formulating the vision and the long-term goals of the enterprise as a whole. These responsibilities imply that the managers should be able to see beyond time and space. The conceptual skills are moderately important to the mid-level managers and less important to the lower level managers.
- Diagnostic skills: Diagnostic skills refer to the ability to understand and interpret the underlying issues beneath a phenomenon and to draw answers from the underlying issues. The skills are critically important to the top-level managers, moderately important to the mid-level managers and less important to the lower level managers.
- Technical skills: Technical skills refer to the proficiency in handling the techniques of a given trade such as accounting techniques, engineering techniques and others. Technical skills are the knowledge and capabilities to perform field-specific, specialized tasks. They are practical, and often relate to mechanical, information technology, mathematical, or scientific tasks.
- Human relation skills/interpersonal skills/soft management skills: Human relations skills relate to the ability to deal with and work with other people. it is the ability to build up cooperative, work teams, secure cooperation of staff and to handle diversity. The manager needs to know how to manage relationships between himself and his subordinates, as well as manage the relationships among those who work under him. The manager should also know how to develop relationships with his superiors, and coordinate relationships across the hierarchy. The manager should to be able to build good relationships with customers, and see things from the customers’ perspective.
- Political skills: Political skills relate to the ability to have your own way without appearing to be egotistic or self- centered. It is the ability to get your own share of power and use it without fear of losing it. These skills will enable a manager to establish the rigid connections then skillfully use these connections for the advantage of the firm.
- Communication skills: This is the ability to communicate effectively. Management involves working with people and through people. In addition, managers are the conduits of all communication flows in and out the organization. It is therefore important for managers to had exemplary communication skills. Some of these communication skills include: listening ability; empathize, communicate precisely and concisely as well as provide information on a timely basis.
QUESTION 2
December 2021 Question Five B
Analyse four arguments against management as a profession.
(4 marks)
ANSWER
Arguments against management as a profession
- A profession is based on an approved body of knowledge which requires rigorous intellectual training which takes a considerable period of time. Hence management is not a profession.
- Professions typically require a significant period of hands-on, practical experience in the protected company of senior members before an individual is recognized as a professional. After this provisional period, continuous education toward professional development is a mandatory requirement hence management is not a profession.
- Entry into a profession is restricted by an association of members, membership of which is restricted to people with common training and attitude thus management is not a, profession.
- In a profession the emphasis on service to others. In relation to this, a professional involves great responsibility. Professionals deal with matters of vital significance to their clients and are hence entrusted with great responsibilities and obligations. Professionals therefore owe a duty of care to their clients, breach of which can cause grave damage to the client. Arising from the duty of care is accountability, Professionals are personally accountable for the quality of their work with the client. Management may not quite fit in this perspective of a profession as it does not focus on service to others but rather it involves manipulating the organizational resources with a view of optimize their use in order to maximize profits and achieve other organizational goals.
- In a profession there is a code of ethics that regulates the behavior of the members of the profession thus management is not a profession.
- A profession maintains an experimental attitude towards information and is constantly in search of new information through research and practice. Thus, management is not a profession
QUESTION 3
What are the four managerial functions and how do they interrelate with each other?
ANSWER
The four managerial functions are:-
- a) Planning – (Decision making, looking ahead). It is the determining of organisation’s goals and deciding how best to achieve them. Managers think through their goals and actions in advance, that their actions are based on some method, plan or logic, rather than on a hunch. It is the basis by which:-
- The organisation obtains and commits the resources required to attain its objectives
- Members of the organisation carry on activities consistent with the chosen objectives and procedures.
- Progress towards the objective is monitored and measured so that corrective action can be taken where such progress is unsatisfactory.
- b) Organising – (harnessing, combining, co-ordinating resources). While planning provides the framework in terms of organisational goals, organising refers to the process of arranging and allocating work, authority and resources among an organisation’s members so that they can achieve the organisation’s goals effectively and efficiently.
- It entails setting or designing the organisational structure that suits the organisation in terms of its resources and gaols. Students will note organising should necessarily follow after planning.
- Management cannot organise without any idea as to the purpose of such an exercise, thus tasks and positions are allocated after an organisation has established its direction (planning)
- The organisational structure defines the reporting levels within an organisation and provides a hierarchy of formal positions
- c) Leading: – (Directing, supervising, overseeing, guiding, motivating). This entails directing, influencing and motivating the task related activities and efforts of organisational members to achieve set goals of an organisation.
The leadership function is distinct from planning in that it involves dealing with people. It should be borne in mind that leading function necessarily follows after organising. Managers are given authority and responsibility as well as confirmation of their levels in the company through that organisation function. It should therefore follow that you cannot effectively lead without knowing:
Who to lead? Where you belong in terms of the various departments of the organisation. How much authority is bestowed upon you, and finally. Who you report to in the organisational hierarchy.
- d) Controlling :- (Monitoring, Evaluating, Checking, Making sure). This process is the ultimate management function and it evaluates the efficiency and effectiveness of the other management functions. The control function is concerned with ensuring that the action s of the organisation’s members does move the organisation towards its stated goals.
It is sometimes referred to as the process of monitoring progress towards achievement of goals. The controlling function entails:-
- Establishing standards of performance and how it will be measured
- Measuring current performance
- Comparing actual with standard performance, and
- Taking corrective action where deviations from stated goals are detected.
Through the control function, the manager keeps the organisation on its chosen track through timorously investigating and correcting and deviations from set standards
QUESTION 4
Explain three ways of classifying managers
ANSWER
Ways of classifying managers
- a) Managers can be classified by management levels were we have:-
- First line managers also known as operations managers or just line managers. These are responsible for the work of employees only and as such do not supervise any managers. They are the lowest management level in the organisational hierarchy, being directly responsible for the supervision of non-managerial staff. First line managers’ activities tend to focus mainly on the day to day running of the organisation and they focus on the activities of sub-units such as departments and sections thereof.
Typical titles of first line managers are: foreman, supervisor, operations managers etc
- Middle managers (also known as tactical managers or management control level). This may incorporate more than one level in the organisation. They are primarily concerned with directing the operations of lower level management. In addition they are also responsible for implementing and interpreting the policies formulated by the top management level. Thus they are intermediaries between top management and lower level management.
Typical titles include: Branch managers, Regional managers, senior managers etc.
- Top management (also known as strategic managers or corporate level managers). Top managers probably account for a relatively small group of executives who control the organisation. They are thus responsible for establishing the organisation’s goals, strategies and operating policies. In addition, they also represent the organisation to the external environment e.g. by meeting with government officials, other business executives, other institutional heads etc.
Activities undertaken at this level are thus of a long term nature and mainly guide the organisation’s conduct with the environment. They tend to focus on the organisation as a whole, with emphasis on both the present and the future scale of operations
Typical titles are: Chief Executive Officer, Managing Director, and General Manager etc.
- b) Management can also be classified according to the scope of activities
- Functional Managers- These are responsible for just one speciality organisational activity e.g. the finance manager (responsible for finance) and the human resources managers (responsible for the human resource function) this level of management may be likened to that of operational management for they are also responsible for the day to day running of the organisation as well as the direct supervision of subordinates.
The people headed by a functional manager are engaged in a common set of activities
- General Managers. Unlike functional managers, general managers oversee the complex units e.g. subsidiaries or independent operating divisions. In this case they will be responsible for all the activities of that unit such as marketing, production etc. Thus the general manager will be in charge of the functional managers falling under his sub-unit or division.
QUESTION 5
State and explain three managerial roles as identified by Henry Mintzberg. Clearly identify how each is subdivided.
ANSWER
Managerial roles as identified by Henry Mintzberg and how each is subdivided
- a) INTERPERSONAL ROLES:
These roles relate to how a manager interacts with others i.e. subordinates, peers, supervisors and outsiders. They include the roles of:-
- Figurehead: – As a figurehead, the manager performs certain ceremonial roles, which are of a legal nature. Typical example include welcoming visitors, attending subordinates’ weddings and performing ribbon-cutting ceremonies as well as taking customers to lunch. In this case, managers are symbols and as such personify an organisation’s successes and failures.
- Leader: – Managers are accountable for the actions of their subordinates as well as their own. It therefore follows that by showing subordinates how to perform under pressure, what hours they should work, promoting, etc, managers will be performing the role of leader.
iii. Liaison: – In the liaison role, managers must learn to work with everyone both within and outside the organisation who can help them achieve their goals. This role necessitates establishing networks of contacts and creating obligations among the people with whom the manager interacts. In this instance, managers also act as a contact person and his activities include those of writing correspondences, replying customer enquiries, etc. Thus liaison role enables the manager to win support for his/her proposal.
- b) INFORMATIONAL ROLES
These relate to the manager’s tasks of receiving and communicating information. Managers need information to make quality and informed decisions.
Similarly other people, both within and outside the organisation rely on information received from and / or transmitted through the manager. Mintzberg identifies the following three informational roles that managers have to undertake:-
- Monitor: – Managers are constantly and actively seeking for information from both inside and outside the organisation that may be useful to the organisation. They establish a network of contacts through which they get information. In addition they ask subordinates for information where the subordinates are more informed.
Where possible, they also obtain information from unsolicited sources. It is because of this role, therefore that managers are often said to be the most informed people in an organisation
- Disseminator: – Here managers will be responsible for contributing important information to subordinates. The manager has to make sure that subordinates have all the information to ensure that they carry out their duties efficiently and effectively. This role may also be thought of as a communication role, especially combined with the role of monitor.
iii. Spokesperson: – Managers in this instance are responsible for transmitting information to the outside world. Literally put, managers are said to be the organisation public relations managers (officers). Typical activities include, among other things, replying letters from customers, giving speeches on behalf of the organisation etc.
- c) DECISIONAL ROLES
According to Mintzberg, information is the basic input for managerial decision-making. The following are four decisional roles:-
- Entrepreneur: – Managers try to improve performance of their sub-units as if they are the actual entrepreneurs. Examples include situations when managers make decisions that will maximise shareholders’ wealth and add value to the organisation, thus, managers act as entrepreneurs whenever they act in the best interest of the providers of capital. They make decisions that will minimise costs and maximise returns.
- Disturbance Handler: – This is the role of problem-solving. In this case the manager is expected to take care of ‘sticky’ situations. Thus the manager is expected to come up with solutions to difficult situations. The role of disturbance handler requires both the analytical and conceptual skills. Good examples of disturbance handlers (which the manager has to deal with) could be industrial actions (strikes), low performance, high employee turnover etc.
iii. Resource Allocator: – The role of the resource allocator entails all the activities that the manager undertakes to minimise revenue and minimise costs. It is primarily concerned with the activities relating to allocating resources (human physical or otherwise) among the organisational members.
For instance, a manager is expected to make decisions, say, on the best way of utilising resources such as that the revenue of the organisation reaches the desired targets.
- Negotiator: – As negotiators, managers spend a lot of time bargaining for a better deal for their sub-units or for the organisation as a whole.
Typical examples include bargaining with workers for salary increases, bargaining with suppliers for cheaper materials etc. Thus, negotiating requires the application of various managerial skills such as interpersonal, diagnostic, technical, etc
QUESTION 6
Identify five (5) basic management skills and explain the major sources of these skills.
Do managers at all levels require these skills? Explain giving examples.
ANSWER
Basic management skills their major sources
In order to effectively and efficiently undertake their management functions, managers need to have certain unique abilities called managerial skills. Five managerial skills are
- Technical
- interpersonal (or Human)
- Conceptual, (d)
- Diagnostic, and
- Analytical
(1) Technical Skills: – These are skills necessary to accomplish specialised activities. They incorporate the ability to use procedures, techniques and knowledge of a specialised field. For instance Doctors, accountants, and even musicians all have technical skills in their respective fields. First line managers have to possess technical skills as they are responsible for the day to day running of the organisation. This requires knowledge of procedures, techniques and skills in their specific areas of responsibility.
(2) Interpersonal or Human Skills. At first line level, where managers directly supervise subordinates, they are expected to have the ability to work with, understand, and motivate other people (subordinates) as individuals or in groups. They spend considerable time interacting with people not only inside but also outside the organisation.
This group of abilities is often referred to as interpersonal or human skills and communication skills also form part of these. Interpersonal skills could be linked to Mintzberg’s managerial roles.
(3) Conceptual Skills: – These refer to the ability to co-ordinate and integrate all of the organisation’s interests and activities. It entails the ability to see the organisation as a whole, understand how its component parts interrelate and anticipate how a change in one affects the whole.
Managers with a high level of conceptual skills have the mental capacity to understand various cause-and-effect relationships in the organisation and to view the organisation in a holistic manner.
For instance, a conceptual manager would, before making any decision pertaining to his department or function, ascertain the effect of such a course of action on the operations of the whole organisation. Conceptual skills are especially important at the higher level of management i.e. General Managers, Chief Executives and others. They are a requisite at the higher echelons of the management hierarchy.
(4) Diagnostic Skills. An organisation could be facing problems e.g. in its operations. Managers must have the ability to diagnose them from their symptoms. For instance, a company could be faced with a spate of resignations. This would probably be a result of industrial relations problems within the organisation. Diagnostic skills enable the manager to be able to determine deep-rooted problems from symptoms and are necessary for effective problem-solving. Diagnostic skills are important at all levels of management but especially at the operational and tactical levels.
(5) Analytical skills. These are closely related to and complement diagnostic skills. They entail the ability to identify the key variables in a particular situation, see how they inter-relate and decide which ones should receive the most attention.
Analytical skills enables managers to determine the best possible strategies and select the most appropriate one for a particular situation. Thus, they help managers decide on the best course of action to solve problems identified by diagnostic skills. In some circles analytical skills are similar to decision-making skills, although analysing a problem may itself not amount to making any decision.
There are two main sources of managerial skills which are (1) education and (2) experience
QUESTION 7
“Attempts to bring scientific methods into management merely show what an inexact art management really is.” Discuss.
(Total: 20 marks)
ANSWER
- Management is a process of planning, coordinating, motivating and controlling.
- The use of scientific methods involves searching systematically for evidence to prove or disapprove some theoretical proposition.
- Early examples of attempts to apply the methods of science to management were provided by F.W. Taylor and the Scientific Managers, who observed and measured work in order to establish more efficient ways of working.
- Those such as Fayol, Urwick and Brech who attempted to define certain laws or principles of management also may be included amongst the users of scientific or rational methods.
- In more recent times, the scientists are generally social scientists, interested in the study of human behaviour in organizations. Their methods are based on observation and analysis of people as individuals and in groups.
- Management has also been described as “ getting things done through people”. The application of scientific methods has shown that it is easier to record, measure and evaluate information about things, and much more difficult to make consistent sense of human behaviour.
- Scientific methods have made management more exact in terms of measuring and predicting things, but have done much less to prove that management is a science rather than an art.
QUESTION 8
Managers must live in two time dimensions at once: the present and the future and this
inevitably causes a conflict between focusing on the present demands of the day and creating space in which to plan strategically for the opportunities for tomorrow.
How can managers improve their personal time management so that both these activities can be achieved effectively?
(Total 20 marks)
ANSWER
Managers need to manage their time effectively – it is difficult to save time and managers simply lose more and more of it as days, weeks, months and years progress. They often find that by the end of the day, no more hours are remaining for doing any work.
Managers must budget their time so that they can perform their daily tasks and have time for future strategic plans.
Potential ways of wasting time:
- Chatting too much on personal matters not related to work.
- Long group or committee meetings.
- Too many interruptions during working time.
- Disorganization as a result of poor management.
- Very little delegation.
- Lateness and absence.
Ways to improve personal time management
- Daily goals – know what you want to accomplish each day. Prioritize and tackle the most important goal first.
- Deadlines – set specific deadlines with time targets to achieve these tasks. Deadlines should be realistic and achievable.
- Taking notes – use a notebook or diary all the time. Keep a record of meetings and discussions as well as appointments, things to do and contacts of the people you deal with.
- Use telephone – this should be the main communication link as it is quick for solving problems and is a two-way communication method.
- Self-motivation – this will help managers accomplish tasks within a specified period.
- Action-oriented – be action oriented. If you plan to do something, do it.
- Work plan – plan work in detail for today and tomorrow. At the end of each day
examine ways in which time has been wasted. - Managerial questions such as what to delegate or what priorities there are in decision making process will help a manager find more efficient ways of attaining goals and objectives.
- Avoid doing everything – do the most important things that lead to significant
Delegate where possible. A manager is a busy entrepreneur. - Reflective thinking – acquire this area of learning from one‘s past experience, present and potential future activities.
- Review and evaluate your experience – a review of past experiences will determine which ones were interesting and productive, this will help in choice of future activities.
- Working in blocks of time – work undisturbed for a give block of time when you feel most effective.
Managers must consider time as their major asset and invest wisely in managing their personal time. They must concentrate on what is important, recognize time constraints, minimize disruptions and get information quickly. All these will serve to create time to perform all their managerial tasks effectively.
QUESTION 9
- a) Define the ―Peter Principle‖ as a management concept.
(4 marks)
- b) To what extent is the concept valid in modern management practices? (16 marks)
ANSWER
- a) The ‚Peter Principle‛
The Peter Principle concept was introduced by Canadian sociologist Dr. Laurence Johnston Peter in his humoristic book of the same title. In his book, he describes the pitfalls of the bureaucratic organization witnessed during his extensive research into business organizations.
This follows from the use of promotion as a reward for success. As long as a person is competent in his current position, he will be promoted to the next higher one. By iteration, the only way a person can stop being promoted is to reach a level where he is no longer able to do well, and thus does not appear eligible for promotion.
The theory was set out in a humorous style in the book The Peter Principle, first published in 1969. Peter describes the theme of his book as hierarchiology. The central
principle is stated in the book as follows:
In a Hierarchy Every Employee Tends to Rise to His Level of Incompetence.
The Peter Principle has attained such renown that The American Heritage Dictionary defines it as “The theory that employees within an organization will advance to their highest level of competence and then be promoted to and remain at a level at which they are incompetent.”
The principle is based on the observation that in such an organization new employees typically start in the lower ranks, but when they prove to be competent in the task to which they are assigned, they get promoted to a higher rank.
This process of climbing up the hierarchical ladder can go on indefinitely, until the employee reaches a position where he or she is no longer competent. At that moment the process typically stops, since the established rules of bureaucracies make that it is very difficult to “demote” someone to a lower rank, even if that person would be much better fitted and more happy in that lower position.
The net result is that most of the higher levels of a bureaucracy will be filled by incompetent people, who got there because they were quite good at doing a different (and usually, but not always, easier) task than the one they are expected to do.
- b) The validity of the Peter Principle in Modern Management Practices
According to Dr. Peter, work is accomplished by those employees who have not reached their level of incompetence. Thus we can see why organizations still function even as the Peter Principle causes some employees to accept one too many promotions. Dr. Peter provides an insightful analysis of why so many positions in so many organizations seem to be populated by employees who seem incompetent. This concept is likely to be ignored by most senior managers since to admit one’s organization is suffering from the Peter Principle is admission that people have been improperly promoted. This, in turn, suggested that senior management might have attained their own level incompetence.
Example:
If you’re a proficient and effective software developer, you’re most likely demonstrating peak competence in your job right now. As a result of your performance, your valuable contribution results in a promotion to a management position. In this new position, you now do few of the original tasks which gained you acclaim. In fact, little of your current job remains enjoyable, therefore your heart is no longer in your work, and it shows. Given this, promotions stop, and there you stay, until you retire or your company goes under due to mismanagement. Companies will attract and expand on a certain level of incompetence. Once a company forms a culture of incompetence, only the incompetent staff will remain, and the competent ones will tire of trying to soar with eagles while surrounded by turkeys, and therefore leave.
The end result is that non-growing companies are more likely to have incompetent employees at many levels of the organizational structure whereas growing companies add new positions and employees so fast that the inevitable results of the Peter Principle may be forestalled so long as growth continues.
Management consultants who recognize that the Peter Principle is in full swing in their clients organization often recommend percussive sublimations and lateral arabesque for high ranking employees to make room for new employees, because new employees are not yet at their level of incompetence thus they can actually do the work they were hired to do which increases total output of the organization.
The employee’s eventual incompetence is not necessarily a result of the higher-ranking position being “more difficult” – it may be simply that the position is different from the position in which the employee previously excelled, and thus requires different skills which the employee may not possess. An example used by Peter involves a factory worker whose excellence at his work results in him being promoted into a management position, in which the skills that got him promoted in the first place are no longer of any use. One way that organizations attempt to avoid this effect is to refrain from promoting a person until that person already shows the skills or habits necessary to succeed at the next higher position. Thus, a person is not promoted to manage others if he/she does not already show leadership, for instance.
Some have observed that individuals perform worse after being promoted. The Peter Principle, which states that people are promoted to their level of incompetence, suggests that something is fundamentally misaligned in the promotion process. This view is unnecessary and inconsistent with the data. Below, it is argued that ability appears lower after promotion purely as a statistical matter.
Being promoted is evidence that a standard has been met. Regression to the mean implies that future ability will be lower, on average. Firms optimally account for the regression bias in making promotion decisions, but the effect is never eliminated. Rather than evidence of a mistake, the Peter Principle is a necessary consequence of any promotion rule. Furthermore, firms that take it into account appropriately adopt an optimal strategy.
Usually, firms inflate the promotion criterion to offset the Peter Principle effect, and the more important is the transitory component relative to total variation in ability, the larger the amount that the standard is inflated. The same logic applies to other situations. For example, it explains why movie sequels are worse than the original film on which they are based and why second visits to restaurants are less rewarding than the first.
PAPER NO.13 LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT UNIT DESCRIPTION
This paper is intended to equip the candidate with knowledge, skills and attitudes that will enable him/her to apply and demonstrate leadership and management skills to grow an enterprise under various circumstances and environments including under uncertainties.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
A candidate who passes this paper should be able to:
• Demonstrate an understanding of leadership techniques and management principles
• Apply knowledge of leadership and management theories in organizations
• Effectively undertake management functions
• Make rational management decisions in an organisational context
• Embrace and manage strategic change.
CONTENT
1. Introduction to management
• Nature of management
• Importance of management
• Levels of management
• Multi-disciplinary nature of management
• Roles of management as advocated by Henry Mintzberg
• The changing roles of management and managers
• Qualities of an effective manager
• Management and administration
2. Evolution and development of management thought
• Classical approaches to management
o Taylor’s view point
o Fayol’s administrative theory
o Max Weber’s bureaucratic theory
• Behavioural management approach
o Elton Mayo-Human relation theory
o Abraham Maslow’s theory
o McGregor’s X and Y theories
o Mary Parker Follett’s Management theory
• Modern management theories
o Quantitative thinking
o Systems thinking
o Contingency thinking
3. Leading as a function of management
• Differences between management and leadership
• Attributes and skills of a good leader
• Delegation, responsibility and accountability
• Power, authority and accountability
4. Other Functions of management
Planning function:
o Introduction to planning
o Importance of planning
o Planning process
o Types of plans
o Approaches to planning
Organising function
o Meaning and importance of organising
o Factors affecting the organising function
o Process of organising
o Principles of organising
o Organisational structures
Staffing function
o Meaning and importance of staffing
o Staffing process
o Factors that affect the staffing function
o Components of the staffing function
Controlling function
o Meaning and importance of control
o Steps in the control process
o Types of control
o Controlling for organisational and employee performance
o Tools for measuring performance
o Essentials of an effective control system
5. Environmental Analysis
• Micro-environment
• Macro-environment
• Internal environment
• External environment
• Tools of environmental analysis
6. Leadership approaches and strategy
• Leadership traits
• Leadership styles
• Leadership skills
• Formulation of an organisation’s strategic direction
• Differences between transactional leadership and transformational leadership
• Conflict resolution mechanisms
• Ethics in leadership
7. Decision making
• Importance of decision making
• Decision making models/approaches
• Types of decisions
• Decision making process
• Problem solving skills
• Decision making under different conditions
• Challenges in decision making
• Effective decision making
8. Enterprise management
• Meaning and concept of entrepreneurship
• Intrapreneurship
• Entrepreneurial development
• Enhancing creativity and innovation in organisations
• Methods of generating ideas
• Introduction to business plan
• Protection of intellectual properties
9. Project management
• Project management concepts
• Characteristics of a project
• Importance of projects
• Features of projects and baseline surveys
• Illustration of the Project life cycle
• Project planning and organising
• Project resources and costing
• Project completion and evaluation
10. Marketing management
• Meaning and importance of marketing
• Marketing management orientation/philosophies
• Marketing mix
• Development of marketing information
• Marketing strategies
• Marketing research and intelligence
• International marketing and e-commerce
11. Leadership and Strategic Change
• Meaning of change
• Theories of change
• Types of organisational change
• Managing resistance to change
• Diagnosing the change context
• Levers for strategic change
• Methods of introducing strategic change
• Problems of formal change programmes
• Leading Change
12. Case Studies in Leadership and Management Sample reading and reference material
